"What is Enlightenment?" Questions

1.What does Kant mean by “Freedom”

Kant uses the word freedom to represent the ability to use ones reason and mind without being persecuted for his or her logic. The text describes it as the "the freedom for man to make public use of his reason in all matters."

2.Why does Kant feel “freedom” is so central to the Enlightenment?

Kant believes that the Enlightenment is the term to describe the time when man comes out of his immaturity. He considers immaturity to be man's inability to reason logically without the help of others, so freedom is central for it is the ability to use ones mind.

3.How do people become enlightened and what is the appropriate environment to accomplish this?

According to Kant, people become enlightened by forcing themselves to think and reason logically

despite societies nature against reason. People can become enlightened anywhere, as long as they were willing to do it.

4.How does Kant relate enlightenment and politics?

Kant believes that rulers and political figures have no right to think for their people, but according to the enlightenment, people can think for themselves.

Enlightenment terms

Enlightenment~The enlightenment was a time when reason and logic were highly valued. The age of enlightenment occurred during the eighteenth century, simultaneously throughout many parts of Europe and the New World. This movement was inspired by many scientific successes, such as the development of a smallpox vaccine. It is thought that the writers of the Declaration of Independence were inspired by the ideas and movement of the Enlightenment, showing the importance and effect it had on the future of the world.

Scientific Revolution~In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, philosophers and scientists began to discover new theories and information like never before. Later, in 1939, Alexandre Koyre named this period the scientific revolution. The scientific revolution began the ideas of modern science apart from those of ancient philosophers. New findings in medicine, biology, physics and many other sciences encouraged the revolution and people had a hunger for knowledge. The discoveries they made then are still being used today.

Copernicus~Copernicus was one of the great scientists of the Renaissance. He was known for many things, such as being a mathematician, physician, classical scholar and artist. He is most widely known for being a astronomer. Copernicus was the first astronomer to recognize that the universe revolves around the sun, not the earth. This discovery is known as heliocentric cosmology. He is also well known for his book, which is titled On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. Copernicus contributed much knowledge and discoveries to many different fields of science and he helped the development of the knowledge of the world.

John Locke~John Locke helped pave the way for the enlightenment in the seventeenth century. He lived through the English Civil War, and had an optimistic view of human nature. In his opinion, all people were born with the natural rights of life, liberty and property. Locke thought that governments were formed to protect peoples rights, and that to succeed, they must have limited power and also be accepted by all citizens. He said that governments have obligations to their people, and if they fail to protect ones natural rights, then the people have the right to overthrow the government. His ideas went on to influence the writers of the Declaration of Independence, therefore extremely affecting the future of the world.

Montesquieu~Baron de Montesquieu was a French man who took part in the Enlightenment. He studied many different types of government from many different countries, and studied ancient cultures. He strongly disliked absolute monarchy. He published his own book in 1748, which was entitled The Spirit of the Laws. In it, he talks about his studies of the different governments throughout history. He thought that the best form of government is when it is divided into three separate branches; legislative, executive and judicial. According to his theory, the different types of government should use a system of checks and balances to keep power in check. This idea would later influence America's founding fathers.

Jean Jacques Rousseau~Jean Jacques Rousseau is also a French man who lived in the eighteenth century. He believed that people were naturally good, but that society corrupted them, especially through the unequal distribution of wealth and property. Many people agreed with his theories. He published his work, The Social Contract, in 1762, and it is based on his theories about society and corruption. In his opinion, people only needed minimal control by the government of their lives, and that the government should be elected. His ideas and values have influenced many politicians since his death, and they would inspire many revolts of economical and social oppression in the future.

Voltaire~Francois-Marie Arouet, who later renamed himself Voltaire, is one of the most widely known of the French philosophes. He lived a very controversial life, for he did not regard what others thought of him as important. Voltaire was extremely outspoken, and he often wrote of his hate for corrupt officials, idle aristocrats, inequality, injustice, superstition, slave trading and religious prejudice. Although his words were often offending, he did not care, and therefore he made enemies with the Catholics and the French government. After being forced into exile, he continued to fight for the right of freedom of speech.

Thomas Paine~Thomas Paine was born in England, but he moved to the United States in the eighteenth century and went on to become one of our founding fathers. He was an author, radical, and inventor among other things. He is best known for his pamphlet, Common Sense. He wrote many other pamphlets as well, and became somewhat of a hero among the French. In 1792, he was elected to be in the French National Convention. Paine was arrested and then later released in France for promoting freewill and thinking. Years later, he returned to America where he died, but his ideas and beliefs, as well as there outcomes (America, free from Britain) live on today.

Thomas Hobbes~Thomas Hobbes helped pave the way for the enlightenment in the seventeenth century. He lived during the same time as John Locke, although their ideas were radically different. Hobbes wrote the work of literature, Leviathan. In his work, he proposed the notion that people are cruel, greedy and selfish, and he had a rather pessimistic view of society in general. He argued that people enter a social contract, where they enter an organized society by giving up their freedom. Hobbes believed that the best form of society was an absolute monarch. His ideas were quite different than Locke's, but they still affected the society that they lived in as well as our own.

Common Sense~Common Sense is one of the famous pamphlets written by Thomas Paine in the mid eighteenth century. The pamphlet series was written anonymously during the American Revolution. It helped convince the colonists that independence from Britain was what they needed at the time. Unlike most authors of the Enlightenment era, Paine wrote in a way that common people could understand, which also helped the popularity of his work. Some examples of his ideas included the thought that it is ridiculous for an island to rule a continent, America was composed of all nations of Europe, not just Britain, and that it was obvious that Britain did not have Americas best interests in mind. These are just a few of the reasons that convinced the colonists to revolt, thus changing the history of our country forever.

Offices of the Roman Republic

The American position of presidency and the Roman position of consul have both similarities and differences. The president of the United States and the consuls both hold the highest military command in their respective countries, they both have a minimum age requirement, and they both are the in the highest political office. They also have their differences, however. While there is only one president at a time, consuls served in pairs of two. Presidents can serve up to two terms of four years while consuls can only serve one year long term. Consuls also hold religious responsibilities while presidents remain impartial.

The Roman Praetor can be compared to an American judicial court judge. Praetors and judges both work in courthouses, and they are both in charge of laws. Praetors can also be in charge of the military, though, while court judges only work for the legal system.

While the American senate and the Roman senate are similar in many ways, they also have a few outstanding differences. Roman senators served for life, but members of the American senate only serve staggered, six year terms. In Rome, senate meetings had no set location, and they occurred either inside or outside the city. The American senate specifically meets in the Chamber of the United States Senate which is located inside of the north wing of the capitol building.

Term Definitions (Group 2)

Polis: A polis is a unique form of a Greek city-state. Polis's tend to have small populations, and they usually consist of a high city, often known as an acropolis. Acropolis's are built on top of hills, and the city's temples are usually located at the cities acropolis. Around the acropolis, each polis has a main city, which contains a market place and other general living spaces, like houses and public buildings. Polis's began with rule by a king, but they slowly progressed from a monarchy to rule by noble landowners throughout the years.

Homer: Homer is a Greek legend, known for writing the epic poems, The Odyssey and The Iliad. No one is certain whether not Homer is a myth, or if he truly lived, for their is no factual evidence proving he existed. Many sources say that he lived during the eighth or ninth century BCE. Even though his very existence is questioned, Homer is known for his style of poetry.

Iliad & The Odyssey: The Iliad and the Odyssey are supposed to be written by the legendary poet, Homer, although their origin is not certain. They are both epic poems, starting with the Iliad, and finishing with the Odyssey. The Iliad documents the Trojan War, while the Odyssey follows Odysseus's journey home to his wife, Penelope.

Pericles: Pericles is known as the first 'citizen of Athens' for he was a general, statesman and one of the brains behind many of Athens fundamental values. It was Pericles who made art and literature so important to the Athenians, for he had a huge influence in Athens. Pericles was around during the Golden Age of Athens also. Pericles played a very large role in the formation of Athens, and the beautiful city and its legacy would not have been the same without him.

Persian War: Starting at around 500 BCE, the Persian empire became a large threat to the Greece city-states. At the time, Athens was the wealthiest of all the city-states. During their first attempt to attack Greece, a small Athenian army defeated the Persians. After ten more years, however, the Persians came back, and all of the city-states united to defeat them and keep their freedom. The Persian war allowed the Greeks to put aside their differences and to combine forces for a common good. This put an end to their disagreements for many years, allowing them to live in peace.

Peloponnesian War: For 27 years, from 431 to 404 BCE, the Greeks were involved in the Peloponnesian war. The Peloponnesian war was a civil war that took place after the Persian war, for the different city-states, mainly Sparta and Athens, couldn't agree on many of the events from the war. It eventually turned into a power struggle between the two main city states, with Sparta winning in the end. Athens soon lost much of its spirit and ideals, ending its Golden Age.

Centuriate Assembly: The Roman Centuriate Assembly was used during the Roman Republic. Citizens divided into centuries, and they voted for legislative, electoral and judicial purposes. Each century was counted as one vote, no matter how many were in it. They had the power to declare war, and to elect the high ranking officers. The Century Assembly held much of the Roman Republics power in the hands of citizens.

Conflict of the Orders: The conflict of the orders was a disagreement between the plebeians and the patricians in the roman republic. Patrician's, the aristocrats of the republic, held most of the political power, and the plebeians wanted more power for themselves. They eventually were able to join the Roman senate, and they were able to run for office as well. The power struggle continued on until Julius Caesar turned the Roman republic into an empire, thus ending the conflict of the orders.

Tribal Assembly: The Roman republics tribal assembly was a system used for legislative, judicial and electoral purposes. It is made up of Roman citizens, who are divided into tribes. There are 4 urban tribes, which consist of citizens from Rome, and 31 rural tribes, which are made up of people living in the country outside of Rome. Each tribe gets one vote, and they are usually led by a consul or praetor.

Patrician: Those belonging to the wealthy class of the Roman republic were called patricians. Patricians were upper-class, landowners. They made up the Roman Senate, and they held most of the power as well. They were an elite group of people, and they held the majority of Rome's power. During the conflict of orders, the patricians and the plebeians had a power struggle, although, ultimately, the plebeians came out victorious.

Plebeian: Roman plebeians were technically considered to be in the middle or lower class, although they were sometimes able to attain much wealth and influence in Roman society. They held little power, for they were not allowed to join the senate, but they were involved in their own tribal assembly. During the conflict of the orders, the plebeians fought for their rights to power, and they earned equal rights from the patricians after almost 2 centuries of disagreement.

Senator: The Roman senate was one of the longest lasting political institutions in Roman history. It began with little power, but after a few generations, it gained respect and power from the magistrates. The senate had 300 patrician members, and senators served for life. They were in charge of making the laws for Rome. By the late Roman republic, however, the senates power slowly began to decline again. All in all, the Roman senate lasted for about two thousand years, with varying degrees of political power.

Consul: Once every year, the senate elects two of its members to be consuls. Consuls are the most powerful senators, and they supervise the government and are in charge of the Roman army. Their power was limited by the senate, though, for they had to consult with the senate for major issues, and new consuls were reelected each year in order to keep the power equally spread.

Plato and Aristotle Notes

~Plato was Aristotle's teacher

~Socrates taught Plato

~Plato:

-428-347 BCE

-came from wealthy family, born in Athens

-disciple of Socrates, present at Socrates execution

-started his own school- The Academy

-Plato thought people with "filters" were better than those without

-came up with the ideas of Atlantis and Hell

-thinks people are close minded, and that they should think outside the box

-thought the brain consisted of desire, spiritual and the rational part

-he thought upper class should rule the lower class

-Plato thought your status should be based on your education

~Aristotle:

-387-322 BCE

-not as wealthy as Plato, but still had wealth

-more of a scientist

-moved to Athens at 17 years, went to the Academy

-left Athens and went to Asia Minor, married King Hermius's niece

-moved to Pala, became King Philips advisor (the Macedonian Emperor)

-went back to Athens, tutored Alexander the Great

-started his own school, called Lyceum

-was more casual than Academy, a "walking school"

-wondered why we are here

-believed people had to work for intelligence

-first to think universe centered around the earth

-first to think of earth, air, fire and water as elements

-thought soul and body were the same thing

EXAMPLES:

~Plato had the belief that those in upper classes should rule those below them. He was born into a wealthy family, so he was always in the upper class himself. Therefore, he would be giving himself the advantage by ruling all of those below him.

~Aristotle had believed that there was a need for social classes, with those who are wealthy choosing the leaders. He himself was considered wealthy, and therefore, he was saying that he and those like him should be in charge of their societies, not the poor, lower class.